Ebay.S Strategy in China Alliance or Acquisition

Table of contents Introduction 3 E-Bay Company 4 The Chinese opportunity 6 The main problem 8 Tom EachNet 11 Benefits 11 Risks 12 Critics 12 Conclusion 14 References 15 Introduction E-Bay was the first company that made possible to sell products on the internet. Nowadays, internet takes a huge place in business activities and not only for B2C or B2B business but also in C2C. This last point is the main activity of E-Bay. But this system buyers and sellers never meet, they exchange money for goods and E-Bay doesn’t have to be involved in the most important and expensive part of the e-commerce (or e-business) which is shipping the product (this part is the responsibility of the seller). E-Bay, and in general, all the†¦show more content†¦In fact we can notice the increase of such services. People used more and more platform in order to sell goods or by it to other consumers. Even if internet is used by a small part of the population (4.6% in 2002), it represented in 2002 the same number than in US with 59.1 millions of connected people. In 2006, the penetration rate was 10,6% of the population so 137 millions of people and about 31.5 of them shop online for reaching a turnover of $2,9 billion. But the problem is the Chinese market is affected by a slow internet speed, a high internet access cost, an imbalanced economic and technological development in some regions, an absence of reliance in credit system for online payments, corruption, currency problems and a miss of legal transparency in making business online. For this reasons, , E-Bay introduced the Chinese market by taking interests in a local online auctions company called EachNet and by fully entered on it in 2003. EachNet got the same activity as E-Bay and was equipped by a rich business knowledge, a strong domestic and international experience and a well-though strategy. This concept was mainly used by Chinese early adopters because of the trading culture focused on a combat between retailers and customers to get the best deal, the concept looked such as bizarre. The start-up succeeds on it by adapting the business model of E-bay to the Chinese customers such as payments systems, demographics and customer behaviours. ForShow MoreRelatedUnited States and Strategy1355 Words   |  6 Pagesby a full acquisition a year later in 2003. Critically assess eBay.s choice of market entry strategy for China (use Key Country Matrix), listing both the advantages and disadvantages of its acquisition strategy (use Drivers (YIP) -CAGE Matrix). 30% Assess the potential benefits and risks of eBay.s joint venture with Tom Online (use Global/Local Matrix)eBay first entered the Chinese market in 2002 by acquiring a 33% stake in its local counterpart, EachNet, followed by a full acquisition a year later

Serial Communication of Arduino with Matlab - 2758 Words

Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB ByAman Mangal IIT Bombay June 6, 2012 Aman Mangal, IIT Bombay Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB 1/36 Prerequisite Serial data transfer in Arduino. Follow the link to learn more1 2 http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/serial http://www.ladyada.net/learn/arduino/lesson4.html http://users.ece.gatech.edu/bonnie/book/TUTORIAL/ tut_1.html http://www.mathworks.in/help/techdoc/matlab_ product_page.html MATLAB programming. To learn more, go to1 2 You should be familiar with MATLAB structures, MATLAB objects etc. Basic programming concepts. Aman Mangal, IIT Bombay Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB 2/36 Serial Communication Serial means †One after another†. Serial†¦show more content†¦Now we are ready for the MATLAB and Arduino serial communication. We will only focus upon the MATLAB. We will study how can we set up serial port objects, send and read data from the buï ¬â‚¬er in MATLAB. I assume the you already know how to send/read data in Arduino. Follow the link given in the beginning of the tutorial if you wish to learn Serial Communication in Arduino. Aman Mangal, IIT Bombay Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB 12/36 Styles used throughout the tutorial All the MATLAB commands are written in italics and preceded by The MATLAB output is written in blue color everywhere. Use help ’command’ doc ’help text’ to get help in MATLAB for any command used in the tutorial. Aman Mangal, IIT Bombay Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB 13/36 Setting up Serial Port Object We ï ¬ rst need to create a serial port object. Serial port object is just a name given to that serial port so that we can use it in later commands. s = serial (’COM1’); Serial Port Object : Serial-COM1 Communication Settings Port: COM1 BaudRate: 9600 Terminator: ’LF’ Communication State Status: closed RecordStatus: oï ¬â‚¬ Read/Write State TransferStatus: idle BytesAvailable: 0 ValuesReceived: 0 ValuesSent: 0 Aman Mangal, IIT Bombay Serial Communication between Arduino and MATLAB 14/36 Setting up Serial Port Object This line of command only constructs the object. It does not check/setup/initialize the communication. This command will stillShow MoreRelatedFunctional Elbow And Wrist Rehabilitation Prototype Controlled By Computer1443 Words   |  6 Pagesthat the prototype allows to reach progressively angles nearer to angular limits of pronation and supination of elbow movements and flexion –extension of wrist, with a reduction of 50% of number of sessions by conventional methods. Keywords— Arduino; anthropomorphic; servomotor; I. INTRODUCTION The goal of rehabilitation is to achieve the maximum potential for function and normal activities. It consists of a procedure in which the patient improves the mobility progressively and increasesRead MoreInternet Of Things Essay1217 Words   |  5 PagesThe Internet of Things (IoT) means that everything and everyone is connected billions of people connected to billions of devices creating a constant flow of real world data, in real time, at massive volumes. IoT provides secure, bi-directional communication between Internet-connected things (such as sensors, actuators, embedded devices, or smart appliances) and the cloud. We discover our custom IoT-Data endpoint to communicate with, configure rules for data processing and integration with other services

Prelude to Foundation Chapter 2 Flight Free Essays

TRANTOR-†¦ The capital of the First Galactic Empire†¦ Under Cleon I, it had its â€Å"twilight glow.† To all appearances, it was then at its peak. Its land surface of 200 million square kilometers was entirely domed (except for the Imperial Palace area) and underlaid with an endless city that extended beneath the continental shelves. We will write a custom essay sample on Prelude to Foundation Chapter 2 Flight or any similar topic only for you Order Now The population was 40 billion and although the signs were plentiful (and clearly visible in hindsight) that there were gathering problems, those who lived on Trantor undoubtedly found it still the Eternal World of legend and did not expect it would ever†¦ Encyclopedia Galactica 6. Seldon looked up. A young man was standing before him, looking down at him with an expression of amused contempt. Next to him was another young man-a bit younger, perhaps. Both were large and appeared to be strong. They were dressed in an extreme of Trantorian fashion, Seldon judged-boldly clashing colors, broad fringed belts, round hats with wide brims all about and the two ends of a bright pink ribbon extending from the brim to the back of the neck. In Seldon’s eyes, it was amusing and he smiled. The young man before him snapped, â€Å"What’re you grinning at, misfit?† Seldon ignored the manner of address and said gently, â€Å"Please pardon my smile. I was merely enjoying your costume.† â€Å"My costume? So? And what are you wearing? What’s that awful offal you call clothes?† His hand went out and his finger flicked at the lapel of Seldon’s jacket-disgracefully heavy and dull, Seldon himself thought, in comparison to the other’s lighthearted colors. Seldon said, â€Å"I’m afraid it’s my Outworlder clothes. They’re all I have.† He couldn’t help notice that the few others who were sitting in the small park were rising to their feet and walking off. It was as though they were expecting trouble and had no desire to remain in the vicinity. Seldon wondered if his new friend, Hummin, was leaving too, but he felt it injudicious to take his eyes away from the young man who was confronting him. He teetered back on his chair slightly. The young man said, â€Å"You an Outworlder?† â€Å"That’s right. Hence my clothes.† â€Å"Hence? What kind of word’s that? Outworld word?† â€Å"What I meant was, that was why my clothes seem peculiar to you. I’m a visitor here.† â€Å"From what planet?† â€Å"Helicon.† The young man’s eyebrows drew together. â€Å"Never heard of it.† â€Å"It’s not a large planet.† â€Å"Why don’t you go back there?† â€Å"I intend to. I’m leaving tomorrow.† â€Å"Sooner! Now!† The young man looked at his partner. Seldon followed the look and caught a glimpse of Hummin. He had not left, but the park was now empty except for himself, Hummin, and the two young men. Seldon said, â€Å"I’d thought I’d spend today sight-seeing.† â€Å"No. You don’t want to do that. You go home now.† Seldon smiled. â€Å"Sorry. I won’t.† The young man said to his partner. â€Å"You like his clothes, Marbie?† Marbie spoke for the first time. â€Å"No. Disgusting. Turns the stomach.† â€Å"Can’t let him go around turning stomachs, Marbie. Not good for people’s health.† â€Å"No, not by no means, Alem,† said Marbie. Alem grinned. â€Å"Well now. You heard what Marbie said.† And now Hummin spoke. He said, â€Å"Look, you two, Alem, Marbie, whatever your names are. You’ve had your fun. Why don’t you go away?† Alem, who had been leaning slightly toward Seldon, straightened and turned. â€Å"Who are you?† â€Å"That’s not your business,† snapped Hummin. â€Å"You’re Trantorian?† asked Alem. â€Å"Also not your business.† Alem frowned and said, â€Å"You’re dressed Trantorian. We’re not interested in you, so don’t go looking for problems.† â€Å"I intend to stay. That means there are two of us. Two against two doesn’t sound like your kind of fight. Why don’t you go away and get some friends so you can handle two people?† Seldon said, â€Å"I really think you ought to get away if you can, Hummin. It’s kind of you to try to protect me, but I don’t want you harmed.† â€Å"These are not dangerous people, Seldon. Just half-credit lackeys.† â€Å"Lackeys!† The word seemed to infuriate Alem, so that Seldon thought it must have a more insulting meaning on Trantor than it had on Helicon. â€Å"Here, Marbie,† said Alem with a growl. â€Å"You take care of that other motherlackey and I’ll rip the clothes off this Seldon. He’s the one we want. Now-â€Å" His hands came down sharply to seize Seldon’s lapels and jerk him upright. Seldon pushed away, instinctively it would seem, and his chair tipped backward. He seized the hands stretched toward him, his foot went up, and his chair went down. Somehow Alem streaked overhead, turning as he did so, and came down hard on his neck and back behind Seldon. Seldon twisted as his chair went down and was quickly on his feet, staring down at Alem, then looking sharply to one side for Marbie. Alem lay unmoving, his face twisted in agony. He had two badly sprained thumbs, excruciating pain in his groin, and a backbone that had been badly jarred. Hummin’s left arm had grabbed Marbie’s neck from behind and his right arm had pulled the other’s right arm backward at a vicious angle. Marbie’s face was red as he labored uselessly for breath. A knife, glittering with a small laser inset, lay on the ground beside them. Hummin eased his grip slightly and said, with an air of honest concern, â€Å"You’ve hurt that one badly.† Seldon said, â€Å"I’m afraid so. If he had fallen a little differently, he would have snapped his neck.† Hummin said, â€Å"What kind of a mathematician are you?† â€Å"A Heliconian one.† He stooped to pick up the knife and, after examining it, said, â€Å"Disgusting-and deadly.† Hummin said, â€Å"An ordinary blade would do the job without requiring a power source.-But let’s let these two go. I doubt they want to continue any further.† He released Marbie, who rubbed first his shoulder then his neck. Gasping for air, he turned hate-filled eyes on the two men. Hummin said sharply, â€Å"You two had better get out of here. Otherwise we’ll have to give evidence against you for assault and attempted murder. This knife can surely be traced to you.† Seldon and Hummin watched while Marbie dragged Alem to his feet and then helped him stagger away, still bent in pain. They looked back once or twice, but Seldon and Hummin watched impassively. Seldon held out his hand. â€Å"How do I thank you for coming to the aid of a stranger against two attackers? I doubt I would have been able to handle them both on my own.† Hummin raised his hand in a deprecatory manner. â€Å"I wasn’t afraid of them. They’re just street-brawling lackeys. All I had to do was get my hands on them-and yours, too, of course.† â€Å"That’s a pretty deadly grip you have,† Seldon mused. Hummin shrugged. â€Å"You too.† Then, without changing his tone of voice, he said, â€Å"Come on, we’d better get out of here. We’re wasting time.† Seldon said, â€Å"Why do we have to get away? Are you afraid those two will come back?† â€Å"Not in their lifetime. But some of those brave people who cleared out of the park so quickly in their eagerness to spare themselves a disagreeable sight may have alerted the police.† â€Å"Fine. We have the hoodlums’ names. And we can describe them fairly well.† â€Å"Describe them? Why would the police want them?† â€Å"They committed an assault-â€Å" â€Å"Don’t be foolish. We don’t have a scratch. They’re virtually hospital bait, especially Alem. We’re the ones who will be charged.† â€Å"But that’s impossible. Those people witnessed the fact that-â€Å" â€Å"No people will be called.-Seldon, get this into your head. Those two came to find you-specifically you. They were told you were wearing Heliconian clothes and you must have been described precisely. Perhaps they were even shown a holograph. I suspect they were sent by the people who happen to control the police, so let’s not wait any longer.† Hummin hurried off, his hand gripping Seldon’s upper arm. Seldon found the grip impossible to shake and, feeling like a child in the hands of an impetuous nurse, followed. They plunged into an arcade and, before Seldon’s eyes grew accustomed to the dimmer light, they heard the burring sound of a ground-car’s brakes. â€Å"There they are,† muttered Hummin. â€Å"Faster, Seldon.† They hopped onto a moving corridor and lost themselves in the crowd. 7. Seldon had tried to persuade Hummin to take him to his hotel room, but Hummin would have none of that. â€Å"Are you mad?† he half-whispered. â€Å"They’ll be waiting for you there.† â€Å"But all my belongings are waiting for me there too.† â€Å"They’ll just have to wait.† And now they were in a small room in a pleasant apartment structure that might be anywhere for all that Seldon could tell. He looked about the one-room unit. Most of it was taken up by a desk and chair, a bed, and a computer outlet. There were no dining facilities or washstand of any kind, though Hummin had directed him to a communal washroom down the hall. Someone had entered before Seldon was quite through. He had cast one brief and curious look at Seldon’s clothes, rather than at Seldon himself, and had then looked away. Seldon mentioned this to Hummin, who shook his head and said, â€Å"We’ll have to get rid of your clothes. Too bad Helicon is so far out of fashion-â€Å" Seldon said impatiently, â€Å"How much of this might just be your imagination, Hummin? You’ve got me half-convinced and yet it may be merely a kind of†¦ of-â€Å" â€Å"Are you groping for the word ‘paranoia’?† â€Å"All right, I am. This may be some strange paranoid notion of yours.† Hummin said, â€Å"Think about it, will you? I can’t argue it out mathematically, but you’ve seen the Emperor. Don’t deny it. He wanted something from you and you didn’t give it to him. Don’t deny that either. I suspect that details of the future are what he wants and you refused. Perhaps Demerzel thinks you’re only pretending not to have the details-that you’re holding out for a higher price or that someone else is bidding for it too. Who knows? I told you that if Demerzel wants you, he’ll get you wherever you are. I told you that before those two splitheads ever appeared on the scene. I’m a journalist and a Trantorian. I know how these things go. At one point, Alem said, ‘He’s the one we want.’ Do you remember that?† â€Å"As it happens,† said Seldon. â€Å"I do.† â€Å"To him I was only the ‘other motherlackey’ to be kept off, while he went about the real job of assaulting you.† Hummin sat down in the chair and pointed to the bed. â€Å"Stretch out, Seldon. Make yourself comfortable. Whoever sent those two-it must have been Demerzel, in my opinion-can send others, so we’ll have to get rid of those clothes of yours. I think any other Heliconian in this sector caught in his own world’s garb is going to have trouble until he can prove he isn’t you.† â€Å"Oh come on.† â€Å"I mean it. You’ll have to take off the clothes and we’ll have to atomize them-if we can get close enough to a disposal unit without being seen. And before we can do that I’ll have to get you a Trantorian outfit. You’re smaller than I am and I’ll take that into account. It won’t matter if it doesn’t fit exactly-â€Å" Seldon shook his head. â€Å"I don’t have the credits to pay for it. Not on me. What credits I have-and they aren’t much-are in my hotel safe.† â€Å"We’ll worry about that another time. You’ll have to stay here for an hour or two while I go out in search of the necessary clothing.† Seldon spread his hands and sighed resignedly. â€Å"All right. If it’s that important, I’ll stay.† â€Å"You won’t try to get back to your hotel? Word of honor?† â€Å"My word as a mathematician. But I’m really embarrassed by all the trouble you’re taking for me. And expense too. After all, despite all this talk about Demerzel, they weren’t really out to hurt me or carry me off. All I was threatened with was the removal of my clothes.† â€Å"Not all. They were also going to take you to the spaceport and put you on a hypership to Helicon.† â€Å"That was a silly threat-not to be taken seriously.† â€Å"Why not?† â€Å"I’m going to Helicon. I told them so. I’m going tomorrow.† â€Å"And you still plan to go tomorrow?† asked Hummin. â€Å"Certainly. Why not?† â€Å"There are enormous reasons why not.† Seldon suddenly felt angry. â€Å"Come on, Hummin, I can’t play this game any further. I’m finished here and I want to go home. My tickets are in the hotel room. Otherwise I’d try to exchange them for a trip today. I mean it.† â€Å"You can’t go back to Helicon.† Seldon flushed. â€Å"Why not? Are they waiting for me there too?† Hummin nodded. â€Å"Don’t fire up, Seldon. They would be waiting for you there too. Listen to me. If you go to Helicon, you are as good as in Demerzel’s hands. Helicon is good, safe Imperial territory. Has Helicon ever rebelled, ever fallen into step behind the banner of an anti-Emperor?† â€Å"No, it hasn’t-and for good reason. It’s surrounded by larger worlds. It depends on the Imperial peace for security.† â€Å"Exactly! Imperial forces on Helicon can therefore count on the full cooperation of the local government. You would be under constant surveillance at all times. Any time Demerzel wants you, he will be able to have you. And, except for the fact that I am now warning you, you would have no knowledge of this and you would be working in the open, filled with a false security.† â€Å"That’s ridiculous. If he wanted me in Helicon, why didn’t he simply leave me to myself? I was going there tomorrow. Why would he send those two hoodlums simply to hasten the matter by a few hours and risk putting me on my guard?† â€Å"Why should he think you would be put on your guard? He didn’t know I’d be with you, immersing you in what you call my paranoia.† â€Å"Even without the question of warning me, why all the fuss to hurry me by a few hours?† â€Å"Perhaps because he was afraid you would change your mind.† â€Å"And go where, if not home? If he could pick me up on Helicon, he could pick me up anywhere. He could pick me up on†¦ on Anacreon, a good ten thousand parsecs away-if it should fall into my head to go there. What’s distance to hyperspatial ships? Even if I find a world that’s not quite as subservient to the Imperial forces as Helicon is, what world is in actual rebellion? The Empire is at peace. Even if some worlds are still resentful of injustices in the past, none are going to defy the Imperial armed forces to protect me. Moreover, anywhere but on Helicon I won’t be a local citizen and there won’t even be that matter of principle to help keep the Empire at bay.† Hummin listened patiently, nodding slightly, but looking as grave and as imperturbable as ever. He said, â€Å"You’re right, as far as you go, but there’s one world that is not really under the Emperor’s control. That, I think, is what must be disturbing Demerzel.† Seldon thought a while, reviewing recent history and finding himself unable to choose a world on which the Imperial forces might be helpless. He said at last, â€Å"What world is that?† Hummin said, â€Å"You’re on it, which is what makes the matter so dangerous in Demerzel’s eyes, I imagine. It is not so much that he is anxious to have you go to Helicon, as that he is anxious to have you leave Trantor before it occurs to you, for any reason-even if only tourist’s mania-to stay.† The two men sat in silence until Seldon finally said sardonically, â€Å"Trantor! The capital of the Empire, with the home base of the fleet on a space station in orbit about it, with the best units of the army quartered here. If you believe that it is Trantor that is the safe world, you’re progressing from paranoia to outright fantasy.† â€Å"No! You’re an Outworlder, Seldon. You don’t know what Trantor is like. It’s forty billion people and there are few other worlds with even a tenth of its population. It is of unimaginable technological and cultural complexity. Where we are now is the Imperial Sector-with the highest standard of living in the Galaxy and populated entirely by Imperial functionaries. Elsewhere on the planet, however, are over eight hundred other sectors, some of them with subcultures totally different from what we have here and most of them untouchable by Imperial forces.† â€Å"Why untouchable?† â€Å"The Empire cannot seriously exert force against Trantor. To do so would be bound to shake some facet or other of the technology on which the whole planet depends. The technology is so interrelated that to snap one of the interconnections is to cripple the whole. Believe me, Seldon, we on Trantor observe what happens when there is an earthquake that manages to escape being damped out, a volcanic eruption that is not vented in time, a storm that is not defused, or just some human error that escapes notice. The planet totters and every effort must be made to restore the balance at once.† â€Å"I have never heard of such a thing.† A small smile flickered its way across Hummin’s face. â€Å"Of course not. Do you want the Empire to advertise the weakness at its core? However, as a journalist, I know what happens even when the Outworlds don’t, even when much of Trantor itself doesn’t, even when the Imperial pressure is interested in concealing events. Believe me! The Emperor knows-and Eto Demerzel knows-even if you don’t, that to disturb Trantor may destroy the Empire.† â€Å"Then are you suggesting I stay on Trantor for that reason?† â€Å"Yes. I can take you to a place on Trantor where you will be absolutely safe from Demerzel. You won’t have to change your name and you will be able to operate entirely in the open and he won’t be able to touch you. That’s why he wanted to force you off Trantor at once and if it hadn’t been for the quirk of fate that brought us together and for your surprising ability to defend yourself, he would have succeeded in doing so.† â€Å"But how long will I have to remain on Trantor?† â€Å"For as long as your safety requires it, Seldon. For the rest of your life, perhaps.† 8. Hari Seldon looked at the holograph of himself cast by Hummin’s projector. It was more dramatic and useful than a mirror would have been. In fact, it seemed as though there were two of him in the room. Seldon studied the sleeve of his new tunic. His Heliconian attitudes made him wish the colors were less vibrant, but he was thankful that, as it was, Hummin had chosen softer colors than were customary here on this world. (Seldon thought of the clothing worn by their two assailants and shuddered inwardly.) He said, â€Å"And I suppose I must wear this hat.† â€Å"In the Imperial Sector, yes. To go bareheaded here is a sign of low breeding. Elsewhere, the rules are different.† Seldon sighed. The round hat was made of soft material and molded itself to his head when he put it on. The brim was evenly wide all around, but it was narrower than on the hats his attackers had worn. Seldon consoled himself by noticing that when he wore the hat the brim curved rather gracefully. â€Å"It doesn’t have a strap under the chin.† â€Å"Of course not. That’s advanced fashion for young lanks.† â€Å"For young what?† â€Å"A lank is someone who wears things for their shock value. I’m sure you have such people on Helicon.† Seldon snorted. â€Å"There are those who wear their hair shoulder-length on one side and shave the other.† He laughed at the memory. Hummin’s mouth twisted slightly. â€Å"I imagine it looks uncommonly ugly.† â€Å"Worse. There are lefties and righties, apparently, and each finds the other version highly offensive. The two groups often engage in street brawls.† â€Å"Then I think you can stand the hat, especially without the strap.† Seldon said, â€Å"I’ll get used to it.† â€Å"It will attract some attention. It’s subdued for one thing and makes you look as if you’re in mourning. And it doesn’t quite fit. Then, too, you wear it with obvious discomfort. However, we won’t be in the Imperial Sector long.-Seen enough?† And the holograph flickered out. Seldon said, â€Å"How much did this cost you?† â€Å"What’s the difference?† â€Å"It bothers me to be in your debt.† â€Å"Don’t worry about it. This is my choice. But we’ve been here long enough. I will have been described, I’m quite certain. They’ll track me down and they’ll come here.† â€Å"In that case,† said Seldon, â€Å"the credits you’re spending are a minor matter. You’re putting yourself into personal danger on my account. Personal danger!† â€Å"I know that. But it’s my free choice and I can take care of myself.† â€Å"But why-â€Å" â€Å"We’ll discuss the philosophy of it later.-I’ve atomized your clothes, by the way, and I don’t think I was seen. There was an energy surge, of course, and that would be recorded. Someone might guess what happened from that-it’s hard to obscure any action when probing eyes and mind are sharp enough. However, let us hope we’ll be safely away before they put it all together.† 9. They traveled along walkways where the light was soft and yellow. Hummin’s eyes moved this way and that, watchful, and he kept their pace at crowd speed, neither passing nor being passed. He kept up a mild but steady conversation on indifferent topics. Seldon, edgy and unable to do the same, said, â€Å"There seems to be a great deal of walking here. There are endless lines in both directions and along the crossovers.† â€Å"Why not?† said Hummin. â€Å"Walking is still the best form of short-distance transportation. It’s the most convenient, the cheapest, and the most healthful. Countless years of technological advance have not changed that.-Are you acrophobic, Seldon?† Seldon looked over the railing on his right into a deep declivity that separated the two walking lanes-each in an opposite direction between the regularly spaced crossovers. He shuddered slightly. â€Å"If you mean fear of heights, not ordinarily. Still, looking down isn’t pleasant. How far does it go down?† â€Å"Forty or fifty levels at this point, I think. This sort of thing is common in the Imperial Sector and a few other highly developed regions. In most places, one walks at what might be considered ground level.† â€Å"I should imagine this would encourage suicide attempts.† â€Å"Not often. There are far easier methods. Besides, suicide is not a matter of social obloquy on Trantor. One can end one’s life by various recognized methods in centers that exist for the purpose-if one is willing to go through some psychotherapy at first. There are, occasional accidents, for that matter, but that’s not why I was asking about acrophobia. We’re heading for a taxi rental where they know me as a journalist. I’ve done favors for them occasionally and sometimes they do favors for me in return. They’ll forget to record me and won’t notice that I have a companion. Of course, I’ll have to pay a premium and, again of course, if Demerzel’s people lean on them hard enough, they’ll have to tell the truth and put it down to slovenly accounting, but that may take considerable time.† â€Å"Where does the acrophobia come in?† â€Å"Well, we can get there a lot faster if we use a gravitic lift. Not many people use it and I must tell you that I’m not overjoyed at the idea myself, but if you think you can handle it, we had better.† â€Å"What’s a gravitic lift?† â€Å"It’s experimental. The time may come when it will be widespread over Trantor, provided it becomes psychologically acceptable-or can be made so to enough people. Then, maybe, it will spread to other worlds too. It’s an elevator shaft without an elevator cab, so to speak. We just step into empty space and drop slowly-or rise slowly-under the influence of antigravity. It’s about the only application of antigravity that’s been established so far, largely because it’s the simplest possible application.† â€Å"What happens if the power blinks out while we’re in transit?† â€Å"Exactly what you would think. We fall and-unless we’re quite near the bottom to begin with-we die. I haven’t heard of it happening yet and, believe me, if it had happened I would know. We might not be able to give out the news for security reasons-that’s the excuse they always advance for hiding bad news-but I would know. It’s just up ahead. If you can’t manage it, we won’t do it, but the corridors are slow and tedious and many find them nauseating after a while.† Hummin turned down a crossover and into a large recess where a line of men and women were waiting, one or two with children. Seldon said in a low voice, â€Å"I heard nothing of this back home. Of course, our own news media are terribly local, but you’d think there’d be some mention that this sort of thing exists.† Hummin said. â€Å"It’s strictly experimental and is confined to the Imperial Sector. It uses more energy than it’s worth, so the government is not really anxious to push it right now by giving it publicity. The old Emperor, Stanel VI, the one before Cleon who amazed everyone by dying in his bed, insisted on having it installed in a few places. He wanted his name associated with antigravity, they say, because he was concerned with his place in history, as old men of no great attainments frequently are. As I said, the technique may spread, but, on the other hand, it is possible that nothing much more than the gravitic lift will ever come of it.† â€Å"What do they want to come of it?† asked Seldon. â€Å"Antigrav spaceflight. That, however, will require many breakthroughs and most physicists, as far as I know, are firmly convinced it is out of the question. But, then, most thought that even gravitic lifts were out of the question.† The line ahead was rapidly growing shorter and Seldon found himself standing with Hummin at the edge of the floor with an open gap before him. The air ahead faintly glittered. Automatically, he reached out his hand and felt a light shock. It didn’t hurt, but he snatched his hand back quickly. Hummin grunted. â€Å"An elementary precaution to prevent anyone walking over the edge before activating the controls.† He punched some numbers on the control board and the glitter vanished. Seldon peered over the edge, down the deep shaft. â€Å"You might find it better-or easier,† said Hummin, â€Å"if we link arms and if you close your eyes. It won’t take more than a few seconds.† He gave Seldon no choice, actually. He took his arm and once again there was no hanging back in that firm grip. Hummin stepped into nothingness and Seldon (who heard himself, to his own embarrassment, emit a small squeak) shuffled off with a lurch. He closed his eyes tightly and experienced no sense of falling, no feeling of air movement. A few seconds passed and he was pulled forward. He tripped slightly, caught his balance, and found himself on solid ground. He opened his eyes, â€Å"Did we make it?† Hummin said dryly, â€Å"We’re not dead,† then walked away, his grip forcing Seldon to follow. â€Å"I mean, did we get to the right level?† â€Å"Of course.† â€Å"What would have happened if we were dropping down and someone else was moving upward?† â€Å"There are two separate lanes. In one lane everyone drops at the same speed; in the other everyone rises at the same speed. The shaft clears only when there are no people within ten meters of each other. There is no chance of a collision if all works well.† â€Å"I didn’t feel a thing.† â€Å"Why should you? There was no acceleration. After the first tenth of a second, you were at constant speed and the air in your immediate vicinity was moving down with you at the same speed.† â€Å"Marvelous.† â€Å"Absolutely. But uneconomic. And there seems no great pressure to increase the efficiency of the procedure and make it worthwhile. Everywhere one hears the same refrain. ‘We can’t do it. It can’t be done.’ It applies to everything.† Hummin shrugged in obvious anger and said, â€Å"But we’re here at the taxi rental. Let’s get on with it.† 10. Seldon tried to look inconspicuous at the air-taxi rental terminus, which he found difficult. To look ostentatiously inconspicuous-to slink about, to turn his face away from all who passed, to study one of the vehicles overintently-was surely the way to invite attention. The way to behave was merely to assume an innocent normality. But what was normality? He felt uncomfortable in his clothes. There were no pockets, so he had no place to put his hands. The two pouches, which dangled from his belt on either side, distracted him by hitting against him as he moved, so that he was continually thinking someone had nudged him. He tried looking at women as they passed. They had no pouches, at least none dangling, but they carried little boxlike affairs that they occasionally clipped to one hip or another by some device he could not make out. It was probably pseudomagnetic, he decided. Their clothes were not particularly revealing, he noted regretfully, and not one had any sign of dcolletage, although some dresses seemed to be designed to emphasize the buttocks. Meanwhile, Hummin had been very businesslike, having presented the necessary credits and returned with the superconductive ceramic tile that would activate a specific air-taxi. Hummin said, â€Å"Get in, Seldon,† gesturing to a small two-seated vehicle. Seldon asked, â€Å"Did you have to sign your name, Hummin?† â€Å"Of course not. They know me here and don’t stand on ceremony.† â€Å"What do they think you’re doing?† â€Å"They didn’t ask and I volunteered no information.† He inserted the tile and Seldon felt a slight vibration as the air-taxi came to life. â€Å"We’re headed for D-7,† said Hummin, making conversation. Seldon didn’t know what D-7 was, but he assumed it meant some route or other. The air-taxi found its way past and around other ground-cars and finally moved onto a smooth upward-slanting track and gained speed. Then it lifted upward with a slight jolt. Seldon, who had been automatically strapped in by a webbed restraint, felt himself pushed down into his seat and then up against the webbing. He said, â€Å"That didn’t feel like antigravity.† â€Å"It wasn’t,† said Hummin. â€Å"That was a small jet reaction. Just enough to take us up to the tubes.† What appeared before them now looked like a cliff patterned with cave openings, much like a checkerboard. Hummin maneuvered toward the D-7 opening, avoiding other air-taxis that were heading for other tunnels. â€Å"You could crash easily,† said Seldon, clearing his throat. â€Å"So I probably would if everything depended on my senses and reactions, but the taxi is computerized and the computer can overrule me without trouble. The same is true for the other taxis.-Here we go.† They slid into D-7 as if they had been sucked in and the bright light of the open plaza outside mellowed, turning a warmer yellow hue. Hummin released the controls and sat back. He drew a deep breath and said, â€Å"Well, that’s one stage successfully carried through. We might have been stopped at the station. In here, we’re fairly safe.† The ride was smooth and the walls of the tunnel slipped by rapidly. There was almost no sound, just a steady velvety whirr as the taxi sped along. â€Å"How fast are we going?† asked Seldon. Hummin cast an eye briefly at the controls. â€Å"Three hundred and fifty kilometers per hour.† â€Å"Magnetic propulsion?† â€Å"Yes. You have it on Helicon, I imagine.† â€Å"Yes. One line. I’ve never been on it myself, though I’ve always meant to. I don’t think it’s anything like this.† â€Å"I’m sure it isn’t. Trantor has many thousands of kilometers of these tunnels honeycombing the land subsurface and a number that snake under the shallower extensions of the ocean. It’s the chief method of long-distance travel.† â€Å"How long will it take us?† â€Å"To reach our immediate destination? A little over five hours.† â€Å"Five hours!† Seldon was dismayed. â€Å"Don’t be disturbed. We pass rest areas every twenty minutes or so where we can stop, pull out of the tunnel, stretch our feet, eat, or relieve ourselves. I’d like to do that as few times as possible, of course.† They continued on in silence for a while and then Seldon started when a blaze of light flared at their right for a few seconds and, in the flash, he thought he saw two air-taxis. â€Å"That was a rest area,† said Hummin in answer to the unspoken question. Seldon said, â€Å"Am I really going to be safe wherever it is you are taking me?† Hummin said, â€Å"Quite safe from any open movement on the part of the Imperial forces. Of course, when it comes to the individual operator-the spy, the agent, the hired assassin-one must always be careful. Naturally, I will supply you with a bodyguard.† Seldon felt uneasy. â€Å"The hired assassin? Are you serious? Would they really want to kill me?† Hummin said, â€Å"I’m sure Demerzel doesn’t. I suspect he wants to use you rather than kill you. Still, other enemies may turn up or there may be unfortunate concatenations of events. You can’t go through life sleepwalking.† Seldon shook his head and turned his face away. To think, only forty-eight hours ago he had been just an insignificant, virtually unknown Outworld mathematician, content only to spend his remaining time on Trantor sight-seeing, gazing at the enormity of the great world with his provincial eye. And now, it was finally sinking in: He was a wanted man, hunted by Imperial forces. The enormity of the situation seized him and he shuddered. â€Å"And what about you and what you’re doing right now?† Hummin said thoughtfully, â€Å"Well, they won’t feel kindly toward me, I suppose. I might have my head laid open or my chest exploded by some mysterious and never-found assailant.† Hummin said it without a tremor in his voice or a change in his calm appearance, but Seldon winced. Seldon said, â€Å"I rather thought you would assume that might be in store for you. You don’t seem to be†¦ bothered by it.† â€Å"I’m an old Trantorian. I know the planet as well as anybody can. I know many people and many of them are under obligation to me. I like to think that I am shrewd and not easy to outwit. In short, Seldon, I am quite confident that I can take care of myself.† â€Å"I’m glad you feel that way and I hope you’re justified in thinking so, Hummin, but I can’t get it through my head why you’re taking this chance at all. What am I to you? Why should you take even the smallest risk for someone who is a stranger to you?† Hummin checked the controls in a preoccupied manner and then he faced Seldon squarely, eyes steady and serious. â€Å"I want to save you for the same reason that the Emperor wants to use you-for your predictive powers.† Seldon felt a deep pang of disappointment. This was not after all a question of being saved. He was merely the helpless and disputed prey of competing predators. He said angrily, â€Å"I will never live down that presentation at the Decennial Convention. I have ruined my life.† â€Å"No. Don’t rush to conclusions, mathematician. The Emperor and his officers want you for one reason only, to make their own lives more secure. They are interested in your abilities only so far as they might be used to save the Emperor’s rule, preserve that rule for his young son, maintain the positions, status, and power of his officials. I, on the other hand, want your powers for the good of the Galaxy.† â€Å"Is there a distinction?† spat Seldon acidly. And Hummin replied with the stern beginning of a frown, â€Å"If you do not see the distinction, then that is to your shame. The human occupants of the Galaxy existed before this Emperor who now rules, before the dynasty he represents, before the Empire itself. Humanity is far older than the Empire. It may even be far older than the twenty-five million worlds of the Galaxy. There are legends of a time when humanity inhabited a single world.† â€Å"Legends!† said Seldon, shrugging his shoulders. â€Å"Yes, legends, but I see no reason why that may not have been so in fact, twenty thousand years ago or more. I presume that humanity did not come into existence complete with knowledge of hyperspatial travel. Surely, there must have been a time when people could not travel at superluminal velocities and they must then have been imprisoned in a single planetary system. And if we look forward in time, the human beings of the worlds of the Galaxy will surely continue to exist after you and the Emperor are dead, after his whole line comes to an end, and after the institutions of the Empire itself unravel. In that case, it is not important to worry overmuch about individuals, about the Emperor and the young Prince Imperial. It is not important to worry even about the mechanics of Empire. What of the quadrillions of people that exist in the Galaxy? What of them?† Seldon said, â€Å"Worlds and people would continue, I presume.† â€Å"Don’t you feel any serious need of probing the possible conditions under which they would continue to exist.† â€Å"One would assume they would exist much as they do now.† â€Å"One would assume. But could one know by this art of prediction that you speak of?† â€Å"Psychohistory is what I call it. In theory, one could.† â€Å"And you feel no pressure to turn that theory into practice.† â€Å"I would love to, Hummin, but the desire to do so doesn’t automatically manufacture the ability to do so. I told the Emperor that psychohistory could not be turned into a practical technique and I am forced to tell you the same thing.† â€Å"And you have no intention of even trying to find the technique?† â€Å"No, I don’t, any more than I would feel I ought to try to tackle a pile of pebbles the size of Trantor, count them one by one, and arrange them in order of decreasing mass. I would know it was not something I could accomplish in a lifetime and I would not be fool enough to make a pretense of trying.† â€Å"Would you try if you knew the truth about humanity’s situation?† â€Å"That’s an impossible question. What is the truth about humanity’s situation? Do you claim to know it?† â€Å"Yes, I do. And in five words.† Hummin’s eyes faced forward again, turning briefly toward the blank changelessness of the tunnel as it pushed toward them, expanding until it passed and then dwindling as it slipped away. He then spoke those five words grimly. He said, â€Å"The Galactic Empire is dying.† How to cite Prelude to Foundation Chapter 2 Flight, Essay examples

Benito Mussolini Was Born On July 29, 1883 Outside The Village Of Dovi Essay Example For Students

Benito Mussolini Was Born On July 29, 1883 Outside The Village Of Dovi Essay a di Predappio in the Northeastern Italian province of Forli. He had one sister and one brother. They always fought and argued over little petty things with each other. His sister name was Edvige and his brother’s name was Armaldo. His mother Rosa Malteni was a well respect and appreciated schoolteacher. His father Allesandro Mussolini was both a blacksmith and a committee socialist. He received his name â€Å"Benito† from the Mexican Revolutionary Juarez. Benito grew up as a delinquent, disobedient, and did not have any manners. He was a bully to the other children around him. He would get into numerous of fights with other children. Benito Mussolini was brought up in one the poorest regions in Northeastern Italy. When he was in school, he always kept to himself and very quiet. He wasn’t a class clown, never cried or rarely laughed. He always sat in the back of the classroom and read a book. He rather do that than play with the other children in his class. He got kicked out his first boarding school. When he was growing up he was surrounded by many political philosophies. There was anarchism, socialism, and others. Both Benito and his father Allesandro had very bad violent tempers. When Benito grew up, he became a teacher in an elementary school in his nearby town; he spread the party of doctrine. He was an editor, Fascist leader, laborer, soldier, politician, and revolutionary. He also became a socialist. He graduated at a teacher training school in Forli, Italy. Then he moved to Switzerland to find a better place to work. When he was in Switzerland, he got in trouble with the law for fighting and vagrancy. So he decided to move back to Italy but in Trent. When he returned he worked for a Social Newspaper Company and wrote several literacy works. The newspaper was called â€Å"La Lotta di Classe (The Class Struggle). The towns’ people loved his newspaper. He made the editor of â€Å"Avanti† (forward); it was published in Milan. When Benito wrote some ignorant and cruel suggestions and ideas in the newspaper. So the he was fired. He then decided to created his own newspaper. He called it, â€Å"Li Popolo d’ Italia† (The People of Italy). He hoped the war between Italy and Turkey might lead to collapse of society that might bring him to power. He wrote violent news articles trying to get an Italian war. When Benito was promoted to the officer of the police force (the commander). He was told to calm down on what he was writing in the newspaper articles. When World War I broke out, Mussolini was against the war. Two months after the war began; he was in favor of Italy entering the conflict and was expelled from the Socialist Party. In 1915, Italy entered the war. Mussolini was drafted into the army. In World War I, he fought in the trenches on the Italian-Austria front. Soon right after his draft, he was injured and discharged when a grenade launcher over-heated and blew up. During the chaos that was going down in Italy after the war, Mussolini influenced many more Italians and his power grew stronger and wiser. He was a reformer and than came a believer in power. Benito wanted to have power over all Italy. He wanted Italy to enter a war, immediately against Germany, but they never did. In 1919, the fascist attacked a socialist rally in Milan. Mussolini and over a hundred of his own men were thrown in prison for possession of illegal arms. All the men and including Mussolini were released the next day. Soon afterwards the police didn’t even bother to interfere with fascist violence. Mussolini entered parliament in 1921 as a right wing member. Mussolini told some of his members of the Fascists to terrorize some of his colleagues. The government seldom interfered. In return for the support of a group of industrialists and agrarians, Mussolini gave his approval to strikebreaking, and he disowned revolutionary agitation. .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .postImageUrl , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:hover , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:visited , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:active { border:0!important; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:active , .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727 .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u905ec9e71dc0f5595d45afedffd01727:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Battle Between Sexes critical EssayHis Fascists marched on Rome, and King Victor Emmanuel III called on Mussolini to form a perfect government. Mussolini took over his realm and he created dictatorship. He took control over everything. After the law codes were written and signed, everyone and everything he ruled. Schools and universities had to take an oath to defend the Fascist Government. Mussolini personally chose all newspaper editors himself, and no one could practice journalism that did not possess a certificate of approval from the Fascist Government. The trade systems were deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the â€Å"cooperative system.† The aim was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or corporations, all of them under government control. When dictatorship came into place a lot of things ended, parliamentary government was ended. Conflict and ambition gave Mussolini the desire for power. The power brought him to Fascism and became a dictator in Italy. The same conflict and ambition brought him to violence and deaths of the hands of his men. As a dictator, Mussolini’s title was â€Å"Il Duce† a.k.a. The Leader. Mussolini had all the power; he made all the decisions. He told the people to build new roads, new houses, harnessed rivers, increased production, and run the trains on time. He reduced unemployment and improved the railway survive. Mussolini thought he had enough power to split Eritreand and Libya apart. The price of his reform was the enslavement of the Italians. Mussolini kept control in his own hands, by murder, exile, and prison camps. Mussolini became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922. He brought back old statues and built new ones. He also rebuilt some old building and homes that have been ruined during some of the war and battles. Mussolini’s dream was to change the name of the Mediterranean into â€Å"Mare Nostrum.† Which means â€Å"Our Sea.† In 1935, Mussolini helped create an anti-Hitler front to defend the independence of Austria. His successful war against Abyssinia with Nazi Germany, which had withdrawn from the League of Nations. Mussolini and Hitler both were forced to seek an alliance on the side of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War ended any possibility to consist with France and Britain. As World War II came about, Mussolini announced his intention to cooperate Malta, Corsica, and Tunis. In 1939, after a brief war, he occupied Albania. Failing to realize that he had more to gain by trying to hold the balance of power in Europe. He preferred to rely on a policy of bluff and bluster to induce the Western democracies to give way to his increasing territorial demands. Although Mussolini had preached for fifteen years about the virtues of the war and the military readiness of Italy to fight, his armed forces were completely unprepared when Hitler’s invasion of Poland led to World War II. He didn’t did not want to join with Hitler but he was forced. Mussolini met Hitler in Venice. He decided to remain still until he was quite curtain which side would win. Only after the fall of France did he declare war, hoping that the war had only a few weeks more to run. Mussolini’s attack on Greece revealed to everyone that he had done nothing to prepare an effecti ve military machine. He had no option but to follow Hitler in declaring war on Russia and the United States. Following the Italian defeats on all fronts and the Anglo-American landing in Sicily, most of Mussolini’s colleagues turned against him at a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. This enabled the king to dismiss and arrest him. Several months later Mussolini was rescued by the Germans and set up a Republican Fascist state in northern Italy. He was little more than a puppet under the protection of the German Army. In this â€Å"Republic of Salo,† Mussolini returned to his earlier ideas of socialism and collectivization. He also executed some of the Fascist leaders who had abandoned him, including his son-in-law, Galeazzo Ciano. Just before the allied armies reached Milan, the Italians partisans caught Mussolini, along with his mistress Clara Petacci, as he tried to take refuge in Switzerland. .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .postImageUrl , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:hover , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:visited , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:active { border:0!important; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:active , .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u69952ca69dd41424a15b6816f6d0d2ac:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education EssayOn April 28, 1945, the German forces collapsed. Mussolini and Clara try to flee towards the border but the Italian underground discovered them at Lake Como and shot him and Clara. They took the bodies to Milan and they hung Mussolini and Clara by their ankles.

Do Children Know God Without Being Taught Essay Example

Do Children Know God Without Being Taught Essay Do Children Know God Without Being Taught? The Benedictine abbess Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) writes of a vision in which a four-sided form, representing the wisdom of God, is connected by a channel to a fetus in the mother’s womb. Through this channel to the child a â€Å"fireball† is transmitted, which â€Å"pours itself through all the limbs of the person and gives the greenness of the heart and veins and all the organs to the entire body as a tree gives sap and greenness to all the branches from its root A fireball possesses the heart of this child. Because the soul, burning with the fire of deep understanding and not having the form of human members, discerns different things in its journey of understanding. The fireball†¦comforts the heart of the human being because it exists so to speak like the foundation of the body† (Fox, 55. ) Hildegard’s vision confronts us with the idea that God may be communicating with us well before we are born. This thought, as well as my own observations of children and my own experiences of God, have led me to ask, â€Å"Can we know God without being taught? † The prevalent theories of faith development, and the curricula for Christian education that have evolved from them, stand in opposition to the idea that we innately know God. As well, the history of Christian thought about children has promoted the idea that children are far from holy and in dire need of instruction. In this paper, after reviewing historical lines of thought regarding children’s spirituality, and the faith development theories of James Fowler and John Westerhoff, I present alternative ideas about faith that allow or support the theory that children know God without being taught. We will write a custom essay sample on Do Children Know God Without Being Taught specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Do Children Know God Without Being Taught specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Do Children Know God Without Being Taught specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This idea is then examined in light of Scripture. Tradition: The Child in Christian Thought For centuries Christians have understood humanity to be marked by original sin. In the West this has been interpreted by Augustine (354-430) and Reformed theologians as a statement of our inherent sinfulness at birth; even the newborn participates in Adam’s sin. Infant baptism, for Augustine, is reclaiming the child for Christ (Guroian, 69ff. ) â€Å"By contrast, Chrysostom [347-407] maintains that newborn infants are innocents, wholly without sin† (Guroian, 70. He interprets original sin not as the passing on of sinfulness, but of mortality; sinfulness then is a result of mortality (Guroian, 67. ) Human nature â€Å"in its wholeness is mortally wounded by original sin† and its will is â€Å"weakened and prone to personal sin, but [infants] are still innocents† (Guroian, 69ff. ) For Chrysostom then, baptism of infants is not done to reclaim them, but to fortify them for a life of spiritual combat. Thus, baptism’s importance for Chrysostom is not solely tied to its remedial power, but to its incorporation of the infant into the church, the body of Christ. Infants are baptized into the church â€Å"because they benefit from the care and discipline of adults experienced in the spiritual struggle† (Guroian, 70. ) It is of course Augustine’s interpretation of original sin that has dominated Christian thought in the West. For Aquinas (1225-1274), infants bear the stain of original sin, but are not capable of actual sin. Aquinas allowed for the idea of the innocence of infants, since they do not yet have the capacity for reason; yet â€Å"for Thomas, children are bearers of actual – but not existential – innocence: afflicted with a fault that does not automatically consign them to hell, neither are they models of purity or virtue† (Traina, 131. ) They are, then, not spiritual models for adults to follow; â€Å"they are incomplete, lacking both wisdom and active virtue† (Traina, 128. ) John Calvin (1509-1564) not only upheld the doctrine of original sin as it came from Augustine, but â€Å"against the dominant patristic and medieval traditions, Calvin and some of his contemporaries, especially Luther and Melanchthon, understood original sin itself to consist of an inherited corruption of the entire human nature, especially of the will and of the understanding (Pitkin, 167. ) Calvin writes, â€Å"Even infants bear their condemnation with them from their mother’s womb; for, though they have not yet brought forth the fruits of their own iniquity, they have the seed enclosed within themselves. Indeed, their whole nature is a seed of sin; thus it cannot be but hateful and abominable to God† (quoted in Pitkin, 167. ) However, Calvin does lift up young children as examples of simplicity and humility that deserve emulation. â€Å"While he did not go so far as to idealize the faith of children†¦ he did consider the youngest infants capable of not merely manifesting but indeed proclaiming God’s glory† (Pitkin, 164. ) Despite their lack of understanding, Calvin holds up young children (up to about age seven) as â€Å"mature proclaimers of God’s goodness† (Pitkin, 166. This, of course, becomes possible only through the grace of God intervening to save them from their fallen nature. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) followed Aquinas in thinking that infants are not born sinful, but neutral; yet the result of human frailty is inevitable sin, occurring almost immediately after birth. Adam’s sin means that humans are born without the qualities that would help overcome the natural tendency to sin. This view of children led Edwards to strive mightily to instill in children a sense of their depravity and need for conversion. Since infants inherited the stain of original sin, they were as guilty as adults. ‘As innocent as children seem to be to us,’ he explained, ‘if they are out of Christ, they are not so in God’s sight, but are young vipers, and are infinitely more hateful than vipers†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Influenced by Augustine and especially John Calvin, Edwards insisted that even the youngest children were corrupt unless they had been ‘reborn’ in Christ† (Brekus, 303ff. For Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), childlike faith is something to be emulated if we are to enter the kingdom of God; in his novella â€Å"The Celebration of Christmas: A Conversation,† children are portrayed as having â€Å"a ‘pure revelation of the divine’ from which no conversion is necessary. † For adults who â€Å"have become alienated from the childlike, a conversion is necessary – a conversion to become as a little child† (DeVries, 339. In a homily on Mark 10:13-16 Schleiermacher describes the quality of childlike faith that is to be emulated: â€Å"The peculiar essence of the child is that he is altogether in the moment†¦The past disappears for him, and of the future he knows nothing – each moment exists only for itself, and this accounts for the blessedness of a soul content in innocence† (quoted in DeVries, 339. It is living with God in the present that is â€Å"the essence of the eternal life that Christ promises to those who believe in him†¦adults, then, must recover this childlike perception, as if by conversion† (DeVries, 339. ) Nevertheless, Schleiermacher understands children to be equally capable of sin. â€Å"If the capacity for religious experience is an innate capability of the child, fully formed Christian faith certainly is not† (DeVries, 346. ) Catechesis and parental modeling of the Christian life are crucial for the child’s upbringing in a life of faith. Reason: The Faith Development Theories of Fowler and Westerhoff This survey of selected notables in the Church leaves us with an idea of the natural tendency of children to sin, and of their need for instruction in the life of faith, though some authors allow for an understanding of children as limited models for adults. In studying the faith development theories of Fowler and Westerhoff, I found strong support of children’s need for instruction, and little allowance for the idea that children might have something to teach adults. Fowler’s theory of faith development is based on stages of cognitive development. As the human develops psychologically, faith may develop in stages that increase in complexity of intellect. Use of a spiral diagram to portray the stages conveys a progression from lesser to greater. The stages are hierarchical (one stage integrates and builds upon the previous stage), sequential (one stage follows another in a logically necessary way), and invariant (stages cannot be skipped over) (Ford-Grabowsky, 26. Fowler writes that â€Å"more developed structural stages of knowing are, in important ways, more comprehensive and adequate than the less developed ones; the more developed stages make possible a knowing that in some senses is ‘more true’ than that of less developed stages† (Fowler as quoted in Ford-Grabowsky, 38. ) In Fowler’s theory, adults at stage five or six have a greater understanding of God than children, adolescents, or young adults. I might ad d that his theory would also place mentally handicapped persons in the stages of lesser relationship with God. The faith development theory of Westerhoff is diagrammed as tree rings (in contrast to Fowler’s spiral. ) He leans away from the strictly hierarchical stages of faith, describing the circles of the tree ring as styles rather than stages. Yet these styles are also dependent upon cognitive development; the first style of faith accessible to us, Experienced Faith, â€Å"results from our interactions with other faithing selves† and is typical in the preschool and early childhood years (he does not specifically address infancy) (Westerhoff, 91. As we develop, we may keep adding tree rings (styles of faith) on top of each other: †¦A tree grows if the proper environment is provided, and if such an environment is lacking, the tree becomes arrested in its expansion until the proper environment exists. Each tree, however, does its own â€Å"growing† and has its own unique characteristics. Similarly, we expand from one style faith to another only if the proper environm ent, experiences, and interactions are present; and if they are not, then our expansion of faith is arrested. Of course no style of faith is natural to any particular age and everyone can expand into a new style providing the proper interactions with other faithing souls are present. (Westerhoff, 88. ) Westerhoff is careful to say that a tree with only one ring is a complete tree; added rings do not make for a more whole tree, but an expanded tree. Despite this claim, and the claim that the styles are not dependent upon age, Westerhoff’s choice of language does convey a hierarchy. The faith of those who do not reach the expanded styles is referred to as â€Å"arrested† faith, and the analogy of tree growth connotes immature versus mature faith. Westerhoff sees faith development as living into our faith potential; it only seems logical to conclude that if four styles are potential, and someone stops at the first style, that person’s faith is less than that of someone who reached the potential of the fourth style. Westerhoff’s update to his chapter on styles of faith (chapter four) moves more forcefully in the direction of valuing all styles of faith equally. Here he discusses the student-teacher relationship as that of co-pilgrims on a shared journey. Each â€Å"is in need of† and â€Å"contributes to the life of† the other (Westerhoff, 103. ) Reason Revisited: Alternatives to Cognition-Based Faith Development Theories When I watched a professor draw Fowler’s six-staged spiral on the chalkboard and heard the explanation that each stage brought one to a fuller experience of God, I couldn’t help wondering: what if we have it backwards? What if, as infants, we start out closer to God than we will ever be in this life, nd as we physically and psychologically develop, we are prone to increasing distance from God? I thought of Jesus’ words, â€Å"Unless you change and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven† (Matthew 18:3. ) Was Jesus proposing that adults, not children, are the ones with a lesser relationship with God? Sandy Eisenberg Sasso presents a Jewish theology of childh ood, beginning with an account of a rabbinic legend. While a child is still in the womb a light burns above its head. The foetus is able to see from one end of the world to the other. It learns the entire Torah. But as it enters into the air of the world, an angel comes and strikes it directly above the mouth and makes it forget the entire Torah (Sasso, 22. ) Throughout life the Torah is reclaimed through learning; yet there remains a sense of the inherent spiritual life of children. â€Å"Rather than teaching of ‘original sin’ Judaism proposes ‘original virtue’, the innate spiritual endowment of the child who perceives the unity of all† (Sasso, 23. ) This understanding leads to incorporation of children into the faith rituals of the Jewish community, so that their involvement is central to sacred ritual. For example, the Passover Seder begins with a child asking questions. The ceremony cannot proceed without the child’s participation. At the end, the children search for a hidden piece of bread; the Seder cannot conclude until they find it. Sasso explores other rabbinic interpretations of Scripture that uphold the claim that â€Å"adult appreciation of the sacred is not better, only different than the child’s†¦God speaks in many voices and each voice, including the child’s, is but a partial apprehension of the Divine. The more voices one comes to know the closer one comes to understand the One God who includes all voices† (Sasso, 24. ) A similar openness to children’s experiences of God allowed Sofia Cavalletti to observe young children and notice a telling depth of spiritual experience, revealing an understanding of God that one would have assumed to be beyond their cognitive ability or domain of experience. Her book reveals such experiences in children up to the age of six, which she observed during twenty-five years of work as a catechist in schools. Cavalletti observed and â€Å"attempted to document the existence of a mysterious bond between God and the child. This bond†¦subsists in early childhood even in cases of spiritual ‘malnutrition’ and appears to precede any religious instruction† (Cavalletti, 22. ) Cavalletti speaks of children as equal to adults in both receiving and proclaiming the Word of God. â€Å"†¦In the presence of the Word of God not only is there no longer neither Greek nor Jew, but, we believe, neither adult nor child. Before the Word of God all are hearers of a message that God addresses to His people through events and words. Such a message can be grasped only through a choral listening in which the child’s voice may have at times stronger and more profound tones than that of the adult† (Cavalletti, 23. ) As a Montessori teacher, Cavalletti is careful not to behave as if the teacher possesses knowledge and the students do not; rather, she â€Å"is open to listening, and†¦not forgetful that one may speak only in the measure that one listens† (Cavalletti, 49. ) Such openness to listening allows her to hear the experiences of very young children and recognize their understanding of God. Where Cavalletti departs most clearly from the theories discussed above is in stating that at times children are the spiritual leaders. What did she observe that led to such a bold statement? She observed that, despite what we are prone to believe, children know God without being taught. Some examples from her book are included here. The first comes from her predecessor Maria Montessori. Maria Montessori, in her book Spontaneous Activity in Education, records the account of Professor Ghidionescu at the International Congress of Pedagogy in Brussels in 1911. He reported the case of a child who had not received any religious education; one day the child suddenly burst into tears, saying: â€Å"Do not scold me, while I was looking at the moon I felt how often I had grieved you, and I understood that I had offended God. † In the same work, Montessori adds other examples that she herself witnessed or that were related to her personally. She cites the example of a seven-year-old boy, also deprived of any religious education, who had been told the theory of evolution according to the principles of Lamarck and Darwin. After the explanation the boy asked: â€Å"From whom did the first creature come? â€Å"The first,† answered his friend, â€Å"was formed by chance†; at these words the child laughed aloud and, calling his mother, he said excitedly: â€Å"Just listen; what nonsense! Life was formed by chance! That is impossible. † When he was asked how life was formed the child responded with conviction: â€Å"It is G od† (Cavalletti, 31. ) At age seven, logical deductions such as the one above are developmentally within the child’s scope (Cavalletti, 31. ) Examples from younger children who have not reached this stage of cognitive development are thus even more surprising. This [example] involves a three-year-old girl who grew up without the slightest religious influence. The child did not go to nursery school; no one at home, not even her grandmother, who was herself an atheist, had ever spoken of God; the child had never gone to church. One day she questioned her father about the origin of the world: â€Å"Where does the world come from? † Her father replied, in a manner consistent with his ideas, with a discourse that was materialistic in nature; then he added: â€Å"However, there are those who say that all this comes from a very powerful being, and they call him God. At this point the little girl began to run like a whirlwind around the room in a burst of joy, and exclaimed, â€Å"I knew what you told me wasn’t true; it is Him, it is Him! † (Cavalletti, 31ff. ) Examples such as this, where the child seems to know God in a way different from logical understanding, prompt Cavalletti to ask, â€Å"Does there exist in the child a mysterious reality of union with God? † (Cavalletti, 32. ) Further examples point to the child’s knowing God in a way that is not merely cognitive. One day [Linda, before the age of 6] noticed a butterfly in flight and she felt drawn to it; she followed it and suddenly â€Å"everything seemed to open up around me. † It appeared that she was able to see everything more clearly, and she â€Å"felt filled with joy and warmth throughout my whole body† in a way she had never experienced before. The sensation was so strong that the little girl burst into tears of joy, ran to her mother, and said, â€Å"Mommy, I know God. † Only much later, in thinking over that event, did Linda associate it with love; at the time it was something â€Å"very new and different, for which I had no reference points. It was something that the child did not perceive with her mind; what she had said afterward to her mother â€Å"was not an explanation, it was an exclamation† (Cavalletti, 35ff. ) Monica [age 6]†¦began to work again with the altar models, her back turned to the class. All of a sudden she stopped, turned around and said: â€Å"How happy I am today that I went to church! Mommy never takes me to church, she never has time. At last today there is someone who saves me and I feel free. † These are words that, either by formulation or content, seem to surpass a child’s capacity†¦(ibid. , 36. ) As well, the words of Francesco (five years old) do not seem to correspond to a child’s level: Francesco must have understood that his mother was not a believer, and he asked her: â€Å"Whom do you love more, me or God? † The mother naturally replied that she loved him more and the child responded: â€Å"I think this is your big mistake† (ibid. , 36. ) The following account is of a little girl who, while visiting a priest, saw the faces of Jesus and Mary for the first time in her life, represented in icons. This account, and others, demonstrate a child’s knowledge of God coupled with a desire to know more. having rushed into my room and seen the icons, the little girl began asking me questions;†¦with eyes wide open she fastened her gaze on the faces of Jesus and the Mother of God, which she was seeing for the first time in her life. Although with effort, I explained to the child†¦the meaning of what had struck her in a way she could understand. B ut my worries proved to be superfluous. â€Å"You know,† she said to me, â€Å"I knew He existed and I have always talked with Him before going to sleep; I knew He was everywhere and that He sees me when I get into mischief, only sometimes I was afraid of Him. How can I speak with Him? † Moved by the child’s words, I taught her the sign of the cross, and I experienced an extraordinary feeling watching those small hands making the sign of the cross†¦ â€Å"And now can I kiss Him,† she continued to my great surprise, but not on His face or cheek, not the way I kiss Mommy? Because He is greater than my mother, He is better than my mother. He sees everything and He doesn’t scold me. He is better than everyone, and He loves me. Give me the icon please, I want to see it always. I’ll put it beside my bed, and the icon of His mother too. Give it to me as a gift! † When her mother arrived the child said: â€Å"Mommy, quick, come here. Kiss Him. He loves you too. At last I’ve seen His face, but I’ve known Him for a long time. † Before her mother’s embarrassed silence the child continued: â€Å"Mommy, why don’t you say anything? Mommy, tell me about Him; I need to hear about Him. † But the icon was taken away from little Irina. Her mother described the child’s reaction: â€Å"She cries, she asks to hang it above her bed, saying, ‘I want to see Him, I need to talk to Him’† (Cavalletti, 38ff. ) Cavalletti observed in children a remarkable desire to know more about God, to spend surprising amounts of time in prayer, to interact seriously with catechetical materials such as miniature altars or figures from parables, to spend more than the allotted time with the catechist, and to attend church even when it was not the family’s custom. †¦We would like to speak about the impassioned attraction the child has shown when faced with the religious fact, so much so that he will forget or disregard the things supposedly more pleasing to children†¦Francesco was two years and two months old. As a Christmas present he received the first tricycle of his life; almost at the same time his mother spoke to him of the meaning of Christmas and gave him a manger scene. Francesco took it happily; completely forgetting his tricycle, he wandered around the house carrying the various pieces of the set, showing them again and again to his grandmother so that she would retell the story of Christmas (ibid. , 37. ) A woman who had not raised her son in the church recounted another example of a child’s strong desire to repeat a spiritual experience. She and her husband†¦took a trip to Italy with their five-year-old son; later she reminisced with her husband: â€Å"Weren’t you struck by the way Pieterke, who was only five years old, followed the services in the churches we visited in Italy? Think of the ceremonies of the cathedral in Siena and in the Roman basilicas: they were never too long for him and he did not want to leave. For such a restless boy the opposite woul d have been natural and understandable! He thought the celebrations were magnificent. I don’t think I have ever told you what he asked me as soon as we returned to Uccle from our trip to Italy: ‘Mother,’ he said to me one day, ‘why don’t we ever go to church as we did in Italy? ’† (Cavalletti, 38. ) Cavalletti recounts several occurrences of unexpected behavior in children, who will trade their normal behavior or typical sources of enjoyment for the time set aside for catechesis. Enrico (six years old), Paolo (seven years old), and Massimo (six years old) were meeting for the first time with an inexperienced catechist; Paolo did not really want to come because that was his only free day and he would have preferred to stay at home and play peacefully; for the catechist’s part, she was totally inexperienced and without any equipment that could have helped the children – she had only the Bible. The catechist opened to the first page of the Bible, read it, and helped the children to enter into the text. Two hours passed by quickly, and when Paolo’s mother came to take him home his eyes filled with tears; he did not want to leave. Massimo was willing to give up the music lessons he loved because he wanted to come to catechesis â€Å"every day,† because â€Å"this is more important† (ibid. , 40. ) At another catechetical center, the children figured out how to move the hands of the clock ahead so they could go to catechesis earlier (ibid. , 40. ) Children at other centers revealed their enjoyment of catechesis in the comments they made to their parents who came to pick them up: â€Å"Why have you come so soon? Almost two and a half hours had passed. ] I was doing so well,† protested Lucia (ibid. , 40. ) Laura (six years old) said: â€Å"I’d like to sleep here, even on the floor† (ibid. , 40. ) In many of the examples here, the children’s responses are often physical as well as verbal. Cavalletti and others note a â€Å"particular joyâ €  in the children they have observed â€Å"when praying, and†¦when the child is involved in religious activities his ‘whole being vibrates, becomes tranquil, and rejoices† (Cavalletti, 40. ) Remember the little girl above (pp. -9) who ran around the room joyfully when she heard about God as the creator, and the active youngsters who somehow remain calm through the hours of instruction or church services. â€Å"The response the children give to the religious experience is such that it seems to involve them deeply, in total gratification: ‘My body is happy,’ said Stefania after praying a long while with her young friends† (Cavalletti, 42. ) Cavalletti comments that the child’s understanding of God is a kind of knowledge different from academic knowledge. The facility and spontaneity of the child’s religious expression and prayer†¦lead us to believe that these arise from the depths of the child’s being, as if they were natural to him† (ibid. , 42) (my italics. ) She poses that this knowledge is in direct response to the basic need of the child to be loved and to love (a basic need for all ages, I assume – but the child is more transparent about this need. ) Cavalletti discusses this here in the children’s characteristic response to the parable of the Good Shepherd: †¦The parable is so deeply rooted in the child that it appears to be natural to him. It returns constantly in the children’s discussions, reflections, and prayer. The child does not know the parable in an academic way, but vitally; it is not knowledge imposed on the child from without; rather, it is through the parable that the child’s silent request finds response and gratification: the request to be loved and so to be able to love. The child never forgets the parable because the affective integration, which psychologists call ‘affective ratification,’ is complete; the image of the Shepherd is by now a part of the child’s very person (ibid. 74. ) I find intriguing Cavalletti’s observation that children’s religious expressions (here, their response to the parable of the Good Shepherd) appear to be â€Å"natural. † In her discussion of the introduction of Pentecost to the children, she writes, â€Å"With regard to the Holy Spirit, it is striking to see the facility with which the children enter into relationship with Him. The Holy Spirit’s work appears obvious to them, and they know how to recognize it spontaneously†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (ibid. , 117. This seems to invite my question, Are children responding to something that is already part of who they are – and are adults merely giving them the words to name what they already know in a way other than cognitively? Cavalletti poses that the child responds to the parable of the Good Shepherd because it answers a very basic need (the need for love); I ask, could the child be responding not only out of need, but out of recognition? Let us imagine that the Jewish legend retold by Sasso were true; could the child’s â€Å"natural† response to the parable be more of a remembrance than an assimilation of something new? That would certainly account for its seeming natural to the child. The writer of the foreword to Cavalletti’s book poses an interesting idea: I have become sure that there is a primary question in [the children’s] hearts and minds: â€Å"Who are you, Lord? † I do not believe this question arises from confusion or uncertainty. Rather, I believe it is a question like that of the people who gathered around Jesus when he walked on this earth, those people who felt his touch and heard his voice and saw his face, a question that is really saying, â€Å"I’ve seen you; I’ve heard you; I know you, but there is more of you to know. I need and want to know more† (Rebekah Rojcewicz in Cavalletti, 17. ) The acknowledgement that one might know God other than in a purely cognitive way certainly invites us to consider children’s spiritual experiences seriously, even if we do not go so far as to imagine that they are remembering God instead of learning about God. It invites both children and adults to claim spiritual experiences that are affective or intuitive as well as cognitive. Edward Hoffman, in a book entitled Visions of Innocence: Spiritual and Inspirational Experiences of Childhood, briefly recounts the history of various religions’ treatment of child spirituality. He writes, â€Å"Historically, the world’s great religions have always recognized our childhood capacity for closeness to the divine,† and mentions Biblical passages, Jewish tradition, and Native American tradition, among others (Hoffman, 3ff. ) His book documents experiences that people had as children, which were pivotal experiences for their understanding of life, God, and the world. The adults report experiences they had even sixty years ago, that are still vivid in their memory, despite insistence by parents, friends, etc. that they discount their experiences. The book is filled with experiences that are far from merely cognitive, many occurring in very young children. Similar findings are mentioned in a book by David Hay and Rebecca Nye. In an account of scholarly attempts to document child spirituality, Hay writes of the â€Å"shortage of competent research† and the difficulty of â€Å"the intellectual bias of much of the modern psychology of education†: During the 1960s one of the most influential students of religious education in the English-speaking world was the psychologist Ronald Goldman†¦. Goldman was a follower of the cognitive psychologist Jean Piaget, and his personal assumptions led him to ignore the possibility that spirituality might feature in the lives of children. In the second chapter of his most important book, Religious Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence Goldman took the view that â€Å"the mystics, who claim to have direct sensations of the divine, are exceptions, but as they are extremely rare cases, rarer in adolescence and practically unknown in childhood,† he would ignore them. The mistake he made was to assume that spiritual awareness is always something extraordinary, equated with mystical ecstasy, instead of holding open the possibility that it might be a very ordinary aspect of young children’s everyday experience†¦. Goldman’s opinions continue to have influence, despite sustained critiques of his position by a number of scholars (Hay, 41. ) Hay continues: During the 1970s and 1980s, evidence of the reality of spiritual awareness in early childhood began to flow from the work of Edward Robinson, the successor of Alister Hardy as director of the Religious Experience Research Unit in Oxford. Robinson noticed that a sizable proportion of the 5,000 or so accounts of religious experience which had been sent in to the Unit were reminiscences of events occurring in childhood, sometimes in very early years. As a result of pondering on these stories, published an account of them in his book The Original Vision. This was a pioneering attempt to question the educational validity of the Piagetian model as applied by Goldman to the area of religious understanding. What first impressed Robinson was the way that these childhood experiences had remained vivid in the memories of his correspondents for the whole of their lives. People repeatedly spoke of them as having the greatest personal significance when they were contemplating their personal identity and the meaning of their lives. No doubt there had been a considerable development in the interpretation and perhaps embellishment of these experiences as the individuals thought about them over the years. Yet Robinson found it hard to ignore the power of the initial impact of the event which had generated this wealth of reflection. Could it be that Goldman and his followers were giving a great deal of attention to the language and thought forms of religion, whilst ignoring the direct awareness out of which it grows? (Hay, 43ff. ) Hay summarizes an article by Lorelei F

Fashion and Culture Essays

Fashion and Culture Essays Fashion and Culture Essay Fashion and Culture Essay To start with, what the author discusses in the essay are the definition of fashion,the meaning of fashion and the interaction of this meaning with cultural values and finally he discusses the communication of fashion. Then author emphasizes the ways fashion uses to communicate and discussion of communication models that fashion uses by examining whether fashion is the meaning of an interaction between cultural values and visual culture or fashion is a reflection of an identity, a way to convey messages. Author mainly asks the question that fashion by itself can be a method of communication or not. Also supports that fashion is not a method of communication by itself, fashion needs shared meanings and cultural values to send a message. According to the author the definition o fashion is what western people wear and the important terms to use in defining fashion the western and modern, wearing clothes is not just up to a minute. She adds that we can see the link between the fashion and the social structure of a culture. For example if the culture is not civilized and immobile we can not expect this culture have a sense of fashion. The author claims that fashion may be about bodies and by using Joanne Entwisle as a reference in transforming the fashioned bodies to cultured bodies in order to show the effect of culture on fashion. An other aspect the author uses to explain the nature of fashion is meaning. While explaining the term author avoids an account of meaning where meaning is a function of either individual intention or of clothing itself. She adds that in this essay she will use Barthes connotation because it refers work of culture . : The meaning of connotation in the essay can be called ‘all the way down’ and not build and based on anything that is not connotation. According to the author, Barthes connotational meaning is explicitly the product of culture. Since meaning is a product of cultural beliefs and values then different believes and values can generate different meanings. The author gives an example from Barthes famous account of famous Panzani advertisement to explain how different cultural beliefs and values can generate different meanings. This example can be called as Italianicity, members of a culture who has no tourist industry,or no stereotype of Italians will not understand that meaning. Also an other result of this example is that Italians have will have a different take on ad from non Italians. So it can be said that in this example we can clearly see that culture and meaning is the terms that very related each other. A second term used to explore the fashion is communication. Basically the author mentiones about two model of communication. The first one is semiological/cultural studies type . The second one is an approach that sees the communication as an expression, or reflection or sending and receiving a message. To start with the first approach, which argues that communication through fashion is not simply sending and receiving of messages which is ‘because meaning doesn’t pre-exist the process of communication. And meaning doesn’t pre-exist the members of cultures who are communicating,communication cannot be the sending and receiving of pre-existing message,there is no meaning until interaction between cultural values items of fashion’ says the author. According to this model cultural values,beliefs and shared meanings are essential for communication. The author uses some proponents in explaining this model such as Collin Campbel who critisizes the sender/receiver communication model in his essay ‘When the meanning is not a message: A Critique of the Consumption in the Communication Thesis’. Also the author shares the same belief with Wittgenstein, who argues that there are no private languages nor can be, in his ‘Philosophical Investigations’. The second model of communication is sender/receiver model in which communication can be seen as sending and receiving messages and communication as an expression . The author seems to be totally disagree with this model . The proponents used for explaining this model are Elizabeth Rouse and Joanne Entwistle. Elizabeth Rouse decsribes fashion as ’conveying an impression’ while Joanne Entwistle says that ‘the clothes can be expressive of identity’. The cases used in the essay are basically for supporting the semiological /cultural studies type and explaining the communication models by giving examples. The purpose of the first case study is to argue that: very well known people such as George Bush,Tony Blair and Osame bin Laden don’t try to explain themselves with the clothes they wear. They know that the clothes they wear can have meanings for different cultural groups but still it is not conveying a message in simple sense. It is not about expressing their identities to public by using their clothes as described in the sender / receiver model of communication. The purpose of the second case is explaining that how the perception of hoodies change after media provided hoodies new set of values and ideas . And it also explains certain cultural groups may construct different meaning of a particular garment. In conclusion the aim of this essay explain the nature of fashion statements by investigating meaning and communication. Meaning and communication explained by the culture. The essay concluded that meaning and communication needs culture , so that culture is a very important factor to understand the fashion, also it is important for the fashion itself.